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Pigeons were punished with mild shock for pecking during one of two components of a multiple schedule. They eventually recovered so that they pecked at the same rate during both components. In one experiment they were extinguished after recovering. When punishment, was maintained during extinction, they extinguished faster during the punished, than during the unpunished component. When punishment was stopped during extinction, they extinguished faster during the unpunished than during the previously punished component. In another experiment, punishment was programmed first during neither of the two components, then during one, then during both, and finally during the other component. The extent of recovery decreased with each successive cycle. It is concluded that, if transient emotional states are ignored, reward and punishment are symmetrical in their effects.

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The termination of a schedule complex, comprising a stimulus in the presence of which brief presentations of electric shocks are scheduled, is a reinforcer. Conditions were studied under which schedule‐controlled patterns of responding characteristic of fixed‐interval, fixed‐ratio, and multiple fixed‐interval fixed‐ratio schedules can be maintained in the squirrel monkey by terminating a schedule complex. The schedule of shock presentation was a critical determinant of the patterns of responding, especially under fixed‐interval schedules of termination. The rates and patterns of responding under various schedules of termination of schedule complexes were generally akin to those maintained under comparable schedules of food presentation. The findings suggest a general similarity in the dynamic aspects of performances under schedules of schedule‐complex termination and comparable schedules of food presentation. The schedule of reinforcement is more important than the nature of the reinforcer in the control of behavior.

Rats were trained to bar‐press for Noyes pellets on an FI schedule which was increased serially through several values from 2 sec to as high as 300 sec. Concurrently, water was freely available. As FI length was increased, the degree of polydipsia increased linearly to a maximum value.

Two monkeys were trained on a three‐component multiple schedule using discrete trials. In one component (food), a response terminated a red stimulus and produced food and SΔ. In the second component (avoidance), a response terminated a green stimulus and avoided shock. In the third component (optional), a response terminated a blue stimulus and produced SΔ The consequence of not responding in the blue stimulus, however, was the production of either a food or an avoidance trial. Manipulation of these consequences showed that when food trials were available only a small percent of the time after optional trials, the subjects tended not to respond in the blue, even though this led to an increase in the total number of avoidance trials per day. If only avoidance trials followed as a consequence of not responding in the optional component, the animals terminated the blue stimulus and avoided the avoidance trials. Throughout the experiment both subjects maintained consistently low shock rates (about 10 per day) and these were not affected by the various manipulations. The data suggest that a stimulus associated with avoidance can be a conditioned aversive stimulus and will maintain a more remote avoidance response under certain conditions.