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Este artigo propõe uma análise crítica da “questão do controle” discutida por B. F.Skinner no capítulo 12 do livro About Behaviorism, no contexto da celebração do cinquentenário desta obra. Skinner argumenta que agir sobre o ambiente é tão essencial quanto funções biológicas elementares e que o controle é inevitável, sendo possível apenas modificar suas condições. Discute ainda o contracontrole como resposta a formas problemáticas de controle institucionalizado, evidenciado em deserções, revoluções, reformas e protestos. O sentimento de liberdade, frequentemente celebrado, pode, segundo o autor, resultar de controles mais sutis e, paradoxalmente, reduzir o contracontrole em relação às práticas exploratórias. Argumentamos que, embora Skinner identifique aspectos fundamentais, sua abordagem carece de ancoragem em contingências sociais historicamente e estruturalmente situadas. Tratase de descrever de forma realmente (e não apenas aparentemente) contextualizada, conjuntos multideterminados de contingências sociais em suas dimensões estruturais ou societais e em suas dimensões sociais ou interpessoais. Para trazer concretude ao debate, propõe-se a análise da Questão Palestina como exemplo contemporâneo de contingências estruturais opressoras, agravadas pelo contexto da “guerra”, ilustrando como relações de controle e contracontrole se manifestam em situações reais de luta por liberdade e autodeterminação. Conclui-se que a compreensão crítica e contextualizada das relações contingentes entre indivíduo e sociedade, em mútua determinação, permanece fundamental para uma Análise do Comportamento orientada à transformação social.

Abstract Darwin explained how seemingly purposeful and foresightful design could be decoupled from natural selection. Skinner followed suit for selection by reinforcement. Together with cultural selection, these three selectionist ideas represent today’s prime pillars of evolutionary thinking in biological and behavioral science. Nevertheless, controversy continues because mentalism still creeps into the efforts of psychologists, biologists, and philosophers to meet the interpretive challenges posed by creative behaviors and innovations. A prime problem may be the unfortunate connotations accompanying the term “selection.”

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ABSTRACT This paper presents two studies that used delay discounting to understand how teachers of students who engage in challenging behavior discount delays in behavioral treatment outcomes. In Experiment 1, the authors administered the monetary choice questionnaire (MCQ) to assess discounting of monetary rewards and a treatment choice questionnaire (TCQ) to assess discounting of treatment outcomes. Results of Experiment 1 indicate that teachers discounted monetary rewards and treatment outcomes, and the region of the U.S. where one teaches may impact discount rate. Experiment 2 extended the findings of Experiment 1 by evaluating if a specific variable—severity of behavior—impacted teachers' rate of discounting. The authors administered two TCQs to assess behavior severity as a state influence. Results of Experiment 2 indicate that teachers discount delays to both monetary outcomes and treatment outcomes, and teachers did have higher discount rates in the severe TCQ compared to the mild TCQ.

Abstract Delay discounting of hypothetical monetary outcomes by justice-involved youth adolescents was compared to that of college students to lay a foundation for future discounting work with justice-involved youth. We administered a hypothetical monetary delay-discounting task to three groups: (1) justice-involved adolescent males; (2) college student males; and (3) college student females. Using nonlinear regression, we fit the exponential, hyperbolic, and hyperboloid models to each data set both individually and at the group level. We determined the best fitting model for individual data sets and group data using the Information-Theoretic approach to model comparisons. For group averages, a hyperbolic model was slightly better than hyperboloid for justice-involved youth and college males, but the hyperboloid model was marginally better for college females. The evidence for any one model was modest to marginal, however. There was considerable variability in which model fit individual data best within all groups, each model being best for some participants. Regardless of the model, justice-involved youth discounted delayed monetary outcomes much more steeply than college males or females. The last two groups did not differ from each other. Two limitations can be noted. The mode for delivering the discounting tasks was different for the justice-involved youth as compared with the college students, an accommodation to the COVID-19 pandemic. Discounting functions from many justice-involved youth had to be discarded because of poor control by delay to the larger-later option. Findings from this study will inform future work on delay discounting by justice-involved youth and may help to inform treatment of this population in the future.

Assessing the extent to which interventions might generalize involves an understanding of for whom and in what contexts interventions have succeeded. Identifying the characteristics of service recipients as well as observers, teachers, and other members of implementation teams involved in intervention research represents an emerging consideration in special education literature involving single-case designs. In addition, the effectiveness of interventions for students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) may be influenced by cultural, linguistic, and economic differences between students and interventionists. This review describes the characteristics of students with EBD and implementation teams featured in single-case design behavior intervention studies published in nine special education journals from 2000 to 2020. Screening of available studies ( n = 4,877) resulted in a sample of 140 articles. Reports of student demographic data were high (66.4%–98.6% of articles depending on the variable); however, authors typically did not describe students’ socioeconomic status (SES). Information regarding implementation teams varied from 1.4% to 46% of articles depending on the variable. Implications for future research follows a discussion of findings.

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