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Abstract Time sampling, wherein an observer indicates whether a behavior occurred within a specified time interval, frequently appears in single-case designs. Partial-interval recording (PIR), the most common form of time sampling, is known to introduce error when used to estimate the duration of a behavior. Recent scholarship has suggested that PIR can be corrected statistically. However, few studies report the data needed to adjust for PIR in meta-analyses conducted to identify effective practices. This could present issues in identifying evidence-based practices in areas, such as research involving children with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD), where PIR is commonly used. The present study examined the results of a previously published meta-analysis concerning the effect of self-monitoring on the challenging behavior of students with EBD (Bruhn et al. in J Positive Behav Interv 24(2):156–168, 2022). Analyses involved (a) calculating effects for each study based on three imputed average durations of their occurrence and (b) conducting meta-analyses to evaluate the impact of average duration on overall estimates of effect. Results suggest that correcting for PIR resulted in marginal changes when observation intervals were consistent with recommended lengths or when results were conclusive, but otherwise were indicative of a wide range of possible outcomes. A discussion of potential changes to reporting and analysis practices follows a description of results.

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Abstract The HIV/AIDS epidemic remains a global health challenge. This secondary analysis evaluated time‐course effects of a contingency management intervention designed to improve antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence and sustained HIV viral suppression. Participants were randomized to a usual care or an incentive group. Incentive participants could earn monetary incentives for submitting blood samples with reduced or undetectable HIV viral loads. A thinning procedure gradually reduced testing and reinforcer delivery frequency for participants who consistently met reinforcement criteria. Over the 2‐year intervention period, the incentive group demonstrated significantly shorter times to viral suppression and significantly longer durations of sustained suppression and maintained undetectable viral loads even as testing intervals increased. Engagement in the intervention correlated strongly with treatment success. These findings illustrate the potential of adaptive, reinforcement‐based strategies to enhance ART adherence, sustain HIV viral suppression, inform scalable interventions for HIV care, and contribute to ending the HIV/AIDS epidemic.

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AbstractReward delays are often associated with reduced probability of reward, although standard assessments of delay discounting do not specify degree of reward certainty. Thus, the extent to which estimates of delay discounting are influenced by uncontrolled variance in perceived reward certainty remains unclear. Here we examine 370 participants who were randomly assigned to complete a delay discounting task when reward certainty was either unspecified (n=184) or specified as 100% (n = 186) in the task trials and task instructions. We examined potential group differences in (a) perceived reward certainty across a range of delays, (b) delay discounting, and (c) associations between perceived reward certainty and delay discounting. Delay significantly reduced perceived reward certainty in both groups, although delay did not significantly interact with group to affect perceived certainty. Despite higher perceived reward certainty in the specified group, no significant group difference in delay discounting was observed. Higher perceived reward certainty was associated with lower delay discounting in both groups. However, we found no evidence that specifying reward certainty influences estimates of delay discounting. Future research should examine whether perceived reward certainty moderates associations between delay discounting and health behavior and whether perceived reward certainty is impacted by interventions that change delay discounting.

Abstract In research on variables that influence bidirectional naming, measurement of bidirectional naming often involves exposing children to pairs of verbal and visual stimuli, followed by testing of listener behavior and tacts. We administered a bidirectional naming assessment, modeled after an assessment procedure described in previous studies, to 12 younger adults (18 to 25 years) and 12 older adults (67 years and older). Visual patterns were paired with nonsense words, and listener behavior and tacts were tested after a 2‐hr delay. The assessment classified one participant in the younger group and no participants in the older group as meeting criteria for incidental bidirectional naming and only four additional participants (all in the younger group) as meeting criteria for unidirectional naming. Although adults should theoretically be expected to demonstrate advanced bidirectional naming, the assessment procedure failed to capture this repertoire. The results suggest that below‐criterion performance in bidirectional naming assessment may in some cases be an artifact of assessment, instead of suggesting a bidirectional naming repertoire has not been acquired. These findings have implications for measuring bidirectional naming and interpreting assessment outcomes.

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Abstract My collaboration with Peter Urcuioli started with research on delayed matching to sample. Initially we asked, what do pigeons remember during the delay in delayed matching to sample: a retrospective coding of the sample or a prospective coding of the comparison‐related response? This led us to examine the basis of the differential outcomes effect. Why are samples associated with differential outcomes learned faster and remembered better than samples associated with common outcomes? This research helped us discover a procedure that resulted in functional stimulus equivalence: Samples associated with the same comparison are commonly associated. This research led Peter to develop his creative model of pigeon equivalence class formation. His model predicts the conditions under which pigeons satisfy the three components of what is known as Sidman equivalence : reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity, phenomena that are difficult to demonstrate in pigeons. Importantly, his model predicts the opposite of reflexivity ( anti‐reflexivity ) and symmetry ( anti‐symmetry ). Research confirming Peter's model laid to rest the belief that the emergent relations defining Sidman equivalence can be satisfied only by an organism capable of using language. In his long career, Peter Urcuioli has made an important and long‐lasting contribution to the field of learning and comparative cognition.